There is a rich history of Ivory carving in the Far East. However, ecological concerns have largely outlawed all ivory dealing through-out the world.

Still, the demand for objects d' art with the lustre and beauty of ivory has not abated. In response, Chinese artisans, especially those based in Hong Kong, have devised a number of legal ivory substitutes.

One such substitute is comprised of compressed Ox Bone. Both Ivory and Bone carving, particularly Ox Bone, enjoy a long and colorful history. This article examines that history, and the wonderful art related to Ivory and Bone.

Cast polyester and other synthetics with the color and other characteristics of real ivory are also used. It can be drilled, machined, threaded and turned; it does not yellow with age and is highly resistant to chemicals. It also scrimshaws and carves well.

Elephant and mammoth tusk ivory comes from the two modified upper incisors of extant and extinct members of the same order (Proboscidea). African and Asian elephants are both extant. Mammoths have been extinct for 10,000 years. Because of the geographical range in Alaska and Siberia, Mammuthus primigenus tusks have been well preserved. Therefore, Mammuthus primigenus is the only extinct proboscidan which consistently provides high quality, carvable ivory.

Polished cross-sections of elephant and mammoth ivory dentine display uniquely characteristic Schreger lines. Schreger lines are commonly referred to as cross-hatchings, engine turnings, or stacked chevrons.

From pre-historic man, Throughout recorded history - man had always reacted creatively to the unique qualities of ivory - the substance was used as a measure to ones wealth and success - great kings, like Salomon who brought gold, silver ivory and apes from Africa, concurring Roman emperors.

Babylonian rulers and Chinese war lords, all through the ancient world, ivory was a precious commodity and its carving an established art - from objects of virtue and vanity to religious worship sculptures and symbols and to functional objects from the size of a needle to large pieces of furniture.

Ivory is not like any other known material, natural or man-made - the mechanical properties are amazingly divers.

It is a hard, dense material and yet can be hand carved, cut, sowed and polished to a wonderful glowing hue, almost translucent at surface level - it can be sliced so thin that you nearly see through it and yet keep its structural integrity, it can be finely worked on a grinder or lathe, when cut thin, it is very flexible - it takes color easily and can be stained, etched or painted.

Ivory takes beautiful, rich patina with time and has better durability than probably any other natural material - carved objects where recovered from as early as 10,000 BC - rich and diverse finds from 3000 BC and on - pieces taken from Pharos tombs are still in excellent condition and preserve their luster and beauty.

A pick of quality craftsmanship and artistic creativity was reached in the far east (China, Japan ans India) and in Europe (mainly in France, Germany and Italy) during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries.

The 'golden age' in Japan's late Edo, Meiji and Taisho periods marked the creations of some exquisite works in ivory and other arts (bronze, lacquer, enamel) same in China's late Ming period to Chien lung and well into the 20th century.

Bone is a mineralized connective tissue consisting of dahllite, proteins and lipids. Compact bone, which is most often used as an ivory substitute, is extensively permeated by a series of canals through which fluid flows. This is the Haversian System.

The Haversian canals can be seen on a polished bone surface using a 10X hand lens. These canals appear as pits or scratch like irregularities. Their appearance is often accentuated by the presence of discolored organic material which adheres to the pit walls.

In ancient East Asia similar small utilitarian objects were produced. Spatulas, chisels, harpoons, arrowheads, hairpins and needles (5th - 4th millennium bc) were excavated in China at the Neolithic village site of Banpo, in Henan Province.

Finds at the Shang-period (c. 1600 - c. 1100 bc) site of Zhengzhou included arrowheads, knives and a piece of cut ox bone, the last being a left-over of bone-carvers' work. By the 2nd millennium bc ox scapulae were being used for divination.

In more recent times bone was used in China instead of ivory for cosmetic pots, brush handles and scroll roller ends. Bone game-pieces were used for mahjong in China and go in Japan.

Since the late 18th century bone has been used as an inlay for furniture, notably in Japan, China and parts of South-east Asia, and as carved relief inlay on lacquerwares, lacquer screens and plaques, where it is often stained red, green or brown; it was frequently used for export pieces. Jewellery and small ornamental items are still made from bone in China in the absence of ivory.

In India, Nepal and West Asia bone continues to be used as an inlay for furniture and in the production of small figurines. Throughout the late 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries Indian craftsmen produced bone chess sets.

In Tibet, parts of Nepal and those areas of China in which Tibetan Lamaist Buddhism was practised, human bones were used for such Buddhist ritual objects as drums, begging-bowls and cups, which were made from crania. Sets of monks' beads were made from epiphyses carved to resemble the human skull.

Bone has been used in arts and crafts for as long or longer than ivory and there are beautiful items made from bone. Many larger pieces would just be too expensive to market if made from ivory.

Bone also provides an affordable alternative to ivory and many pieces rival the beauty of ivory, but from a renewable source. You just need to make sure that if you are paying Ivory prices that you are not receiving bone.

Even some of the most reputable dealers have sold bone items as Ivory. I have even seen resin products sold as ivory at some of the Ebay Live auctions. Hopefully this guide will help both the sellers and the buyers.

Bone is very easy to identify, but often hard to accept, especially if you invested a considerable sum for a particular piece. Unlike teeth and tusks, bones have tiny canals that run through them to carry nutrients and house nerves and other organic material. Often times, some of this organic material adheres to the walls of these canals and turns dark as it decays.

In well bleached pieces, this organic material may be very hard to see but the canals are still there and will show if you move the piece back and forth to reflect the light.